How Did Alexander The Great Die?

0 Comments

How Did Alexander The Great Die
Abstract – Alexander the Great had a profound effect on world history. His conquests covered the entire known world at the time, and he was responsible for the spread of Greek culture throughout the ancient world. In Babylon in 323 BC, Alexander died when he was nearly 33 years old.

Where and how did Alexander the Great die?

Conclusions – lexander the Great died in late spring in the semi-tropical, urban area of present-day Baghdad. Explanations for his death have included poisoning, enteric and parasitic diseases, influenza, and poliomyelitis. Our diagnosis, as well as previous alternative diagnoses, may be subject to author bias, errors in translation, and a paucity of clinical information.

  1. We assumed that he died in late spring in Babylon after a 2-week illness that included fever and signs suggestive of encephalitis.
  2. We presumed that diseases now endemic to Iraq were also present in ancient Mesopotamia.
  3. Recent scholarly thought has been ingenious and rigorous, given the sparseness of available information.

Nonetheless, earlier diagnoses did not include West Nile virus encephalitis. Previous considerations omitted an event that was carefully recorded by Plutarch and which, before 1999, would have been considered irrelevant: the erratic behavior and observable deaths of numerous ravens outside the walls of Babylon.

This observation might now be construed as an important clue. If this observation is included as part of Alexander’s illness, West Nile virus encephalitis complicated by flaccid paralysis becomes an alternative diagnosis. It is possible that, in the 3rd century BC, disease caused by West Nile virus arrived in Mesopotamia for the first time in recorded history, killing indigenous birds and an occasional human and causing only incidental febrile illness in many others.

Over subsequent centuries the virus may have devolved, becoming less pathogenic for indigenous birds, while retaining its potential as a dangerous human pathogen. This is speculative, but in 1999, a “natural experiment” did occur when this Old World epizootic strain was introduced into the United States.

What has been observed in the ongoing North American epizootic and epidemic might be similar to what happened in Babylon many years ago. We now know that unexplained bird die-offs can presage human cases of disease caused by West Nile virus. In 323 BC, a similar event might have been considered an omen of Alexander the Great’s death.

In this instance, the oracles would have been correct.

What is the story of Alexander the Great death?

Death of Alexander the Great – By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers. Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia.

What were the last 3 wishes of Alexander the Great?

Happy Friday! I had an opportunity to hit my 40th country this week, Greece. There are many reasons to visit, from learning more about Greek methodology, seeing archaeological sites, submerging in the culture or the food! I visited Greece for all the above.

  1. I met some incredible people and knew some folks already, so I was pretty grateful to have the best of both worlds.
  2. I became quick buds with a gentleman named Lambros, a historian, olive oil family distributor, and travel business owner.
  3. He explained so much about the Greek culture, the economy, the effects of COVID on communities and businesses.

It was mind-blowing to compare my experiences in the states with his. Ultimately, the common theme I experienced is that people, no matter their nationality, marital status, political views, religious preferences, etc., want to be seen, loved, heard, healthy and happy. The spectrum of my interactions varied from people who never have to worry about money another day in their lives to people who work hard daily, grinding and hoping that the seeds they planted reap a good harvest.

  • Literally, I am referring to grapes for wine production to olives for oil and consumption.
  • On the ride home from the Temple of Nemea and Zeus, Lambros told me I was a light in the darkness.
  • He said he has not laughed so hard and truly smiled since the COVID lockdown.
  • I asked him why he didn’t make laughter and joy a priority despite the circumstances.

He elaborated and explained that the various global issues broke many people’s spirits, tourism was down, and people rarely exhibit joy nowadays. Before we arrived back at the hotel, he asked if he could tell me a story. I enthusiastically obliged. It was a prolific ending to a fantastic day and interaction. The generals agreed to abide by their king’s last wishes and asked him why he was doing so. Alexander said, “I want the world to know the three lessons I have just learned.” The king interpreted his wishes and continued, “I want my physicians to carry my coffin because people should realize that no doctor can cure anybody.

They are helpless in front of death.” The king described his second Wish: “I spent all my life earning riches but cannot take anything with me. Let people know that wealth is nothing but dust.” Thirdly, I wish all to know that I came empty-handed into this world, and I will go empty-handed.” I agree with Alexander’s three wishes; however, I beg to differ the last Wish; that you leave with nothing.

We go without “things,” but we can leave with memories of people we have encountered. We can leave our mark on the hearts of the people we meet at work, attend school with, and more. If this is how riches in life are genuinely valued, what’s your worth? If you have a chance to bring someone joy, do it! A moment in the soul and a robust experience or interaction can last a lifetime. Ya mas! (Cheers and good health to you in Greek)

How did Alexander the Great die and what happened to his empire after his death?

Division of the Empire – Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir because his son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander’s death. According to Diodorus, an ancient Greek historian, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom.

His laconic reply was, tôi kratistôi ( “to the strongest”). Another, more plausible, story claims that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, thereby nominating him as his official successor. Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Alexander’s unborn baby would be king, if male.

He also offered himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater, as guardians of Alexander’s unborn child. However, the infantry rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander’s half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, as Alexander’s successor.

Eventually the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, Perdiccas and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BCE, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The Successors” ( Diadochi ) ensued, before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon.

In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered. : Alexander’s Empire

Did Alexander the Great conquer Sparta?

The proud Spartans had never been conquered (and rarely even defeated) before the coming of Macedon, but the city-state once accounted the undisputed leader of all Greece was a shadow of its former power. Philip, and later Alexander, were faced with a difficult decision in the aftermath of their victory.

Why Alexander is called the Great?

He is known as ‘the great’ both for his military genius and his diplomatic skills in handling the various populaces of the regions he conquered.

You might be interested:  How To Enjoy Your Own Company?

Who ruled when Alexander the Great died?

Lysimachus – Alexander (obverse) and Athena (reverse), Silver tetradrachm issued under Lysimachus, 305-281BCE, the British Museum Lysimachus was a very good friend of Philip II, Alexander’s father. He later became a bodyguard of Alexander during his campaign against the Achaemenid Empire,

  • He founded the city of Lysimachia.
  • After Alexander’s death, Lysimachus ruled Thrace.
  • In the aftermath of the battle of Ipsos, he expanded his territory which now included Thrace, the north part of Asia Minor, Lydia, Ionia, and Phrygia.
  • Towards the end of his life, his third wife, Arsinoe II who wanted to secure the succession of her own son on the throne forced Lysimachus to kill his first-born son, Agathocles.

This murder caused Lysimachus’ subjects to revolt. Seleucus took advantage of the situation invaded and killed Lysimachus at the battle of Kouropedium in 281 BC. By Antonis Chaliakopoulos MSc Museum Studies, BA History & Archaeology Antonis is an archaeologist with a passion for museums and heritage and a keen interest in aesthetics and the reception of classical art. He holds an MSc in Museum Studies from the University of Glasgow and a BA in History and Archaeology from the University of Athens (NKUA).

Why did Alexander the Great end?

While in Babylon, Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned.

Is Alexander the Great a Greek?

(356-323 BCE) Greek ruler, explorer, and conqueror. (384-322 BCE) Greek scientist and philosopher.

What is Alexander the Great religion?

Alexander endeavored to reach the ‘ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea’ and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over Porus, an ancient Indian king of present-day Punjab, at the Battle of the Hydaspes.

Alexander the Great
Mother Olympias of Epirus
Religion Ancient Greek religion

What happened to his empire when Alexander died?

Hellenization – The spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander’s conquests. Alexander’s legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between the East and West, and vast areas to the east were exposed to Greek civilization and influence.

Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, and many survived into the 21 st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves attained a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. Alexander’s most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge swathes of Asia.

Many of the areas he conquered remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200 to 300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and this 300 year period is often referred to as the Hellenistic period. Alexander’s name in hieroglyphics. Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c.330 BCE, Egypt; Louvre Museum. The eastern borders of Alexander’s empire began to collapse during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history.

Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as Sandrokottos ), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. The term “Hellenization” was coined to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander’s conquest.

Alexander deliberately pursued Hellenization policies in the communities he conquered. While his intentions may have simply been to disseminate Greek culture, it is more likely that his policies were pragmatic in nature and intended to aid in the rule of his enormous empire via cultural homogenization.

Alexander’s Hellenization policies can also be viewed as a result of his probable megalomania. Later his successors explicitly rejected these policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite “Orientalization” of the successor states. The core of Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian.

The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander’s army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based koine ( or “common”) Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands, and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek.

  • Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art during the Hellenistic periods were all based on classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic.
  • Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some 20 cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris River.

The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities’ locations reflected trade routes, as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, and little more than defensive garrisons.

Following Alexander’s death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander’s death, many of these cities were thriving with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples. Alexander’s cities were most likely intended to be administrative headquarters for his empire, primarily settled by Greeks, many of whom would have served in Alexander’s military campaigns.

The purpose of these administrative centers was to control the newly conquered subject populations. Alexander attempted to create a unified ruling class in conquered territories like Persia, often using marriage ties to intermingle the conquered with conquerors.

He also adopted elements of the Persian court culture, adopting his own version of their royal robes, and imitating some court ceremonies. Many Macedonians resented these policies, believing hybridization of Greek and foreign cultures to be irreverent. Alexander’s attempts at unification also extended to his army.

He placed Persian soldiers, some of who had been trained in the Macedonian style, within Macedonian ranks, solving chronic manpower problems. Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.

  1. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir because his son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander’s death.
  2. According to Diodorus, an ancient Greek historian, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom.
  3. His laconic reply was, tôi kratistôi ( “to the strongest”).

Another, more plausible, story claims that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, thereby nominating him as his official successor. Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Alexander’s unborn baby would be king, if male.

  • He also offered himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater, as guardians of Alexander’s unborn child.
  • However, the infantry rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion.
  • Instead, they supported Alexander’s half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, as Alexander’s successor.
  • Eventually the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, Perdiccas and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.

Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BCE, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The Successors” ( Diadochi ) ensued, before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon.

What were Alexander’s last words about his empire?

By Blood A King – After Alexander’s death, his successor was unclear. His generals alleged that his last words were “to the strongest,” meaning that his empire would go to the general who could defeat the others in battle. His potential successors, known as the Diadochi, split up the military and waged a war that lasted 50 years.

What did the Romans think of Alexander the Great?

Divine Alexander – How Did Alexander The Great Die An illustration of Alexander the Great’s elaborate funeral carriage. A description of it survives in detail thanks to the historical source Diodorus Siculus. After Alexander died and his body ran cold, his corpse became a symbol of divine power and legitimacy.

Whoever possessed the corpse secured great sway in a post-Alexander world. A war was even fought over its possession, such was the impact he left on the world. Following the climactic battle of Ipsus in 301 BC Ptolemy, the Successor king ruling Egypt, had Alexander’s body moved to the centre of his new capital at Alexandria and placed in a magnificent tomb.

From far and wide for the next 600 years visitors journeyed to Alexander’s city to see the tomb. In 47 BC Julius Caesar, following his triumphant entry into Alexandria, visited the tomb in homage to his hero. How Did Alexander The Great Die Historian and archaeologist Simon Elliott answers the key questions surrounding one of history’s most compelling figures – Julius Caesar. Watch Now Caesar proved the first of many prominent Romans to pay such homage. To those Romans who desired great power, Alexander was an immortalised conqueror who epitomised world conquest – a man to admire and emulate.

  1. Throughout the Roman Imperial period, many emperors would visit Alexander’s tomb – emperors including Augustus, Caligula, Vespasian, Titus and Hadrian.
  2. For them all, the body symbolised the zenith of imperial power.
  3. Many would thus associate themselves with Alexander – some more obsessively than others.
You might be interested:  How To Apply Serum On Face?

The mad emperor Caligula for instance looted Alexander’s corpse of his breastplate. Alexander’s body remained a place of pagan pilgrimage in Alexandria until 391 AD, when the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius officially banned paganism throughout the Empire. How Did Alexander The Great Die Augustus visits the tomb of Alexander the Great.

Was Alexander the Great Mummified?

Alexander the Great, King of Macedon – Archaeology Magazine August/September 2013 How Did Alexander The Great Die When St. John Chrysostom visited Alexandria in A.D.400, he asked to see Alexander’s burial place, adding, “His tomb even his own people know not.” It is a question that continues to be asked now, 1,613 years later. Alexander died in the Mesopotamian capital of Babylon in 323 B.C., perhaps from poisoning, malaria, typhoid, West Nile fever, or grief over the death of his best friend, Hephaestion. How Did Alexander The Great Die

How old did Alexander the Great die?

Abstract – Alexander the Great had a profound effect on world history. His conquests covered the entire known world at the time, and he was responsible for the spread of Greek culture throughout the ancient world. In Babylon in 323 BC, Alexander died when he was nearly 33 years old.

How did Sparta fall?

In fact, the Spartan state was eventually brought down by a number of factors, including internal strife, economic decline, and foreign invasion. Sparta’s military dominance came to an end with its defeat at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC.

How did Alexander the Great treat his people?

Alexander wanted all the people he conquered to accept him as their ruler. He also wanted to spread Greek culture. At the same time, he did not want to destroy every local custom in his empire. His goal was to bring people of very different cultures together under a single government.

Who has defeated Sparta?

Decline of the Spartans – In 371 B.C., Sparta suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the Thebans at the Battle of Leuctra. In a further blow, late the following year, Theban general Epaminondas (c.418 B.C.-362B.C.) led an invasion into Spartan territory and oversaw the liberation of the Messenian Helots, who had been enslaved by the Spartans for several centuries.

Who is the most powerful king of all time?

1. Chandragupta Maurya – How Did Alexander The Great Die Chandragupta Maurya established the Maurya Empire and was the first Ruler to unite most of Greater India under a single kingdom. He held the throne from 322 BC to 298 BC, when he voluntarily retired and handed over power to his son Bindusara. Chandragupta Maurya significantly influenced India’s history.

Most of the Indian Subcontinent was fragmented into tiny nations before he concentrated power, while the Nanda Empire ruled the Indus-Gangetic Plain. His dominion spanned the Deccan Plateau in the south, the Himalayas and Kashmir in the north, Afghanistan and Balochistan in the west, and Bengal in the east.

The Empire was the biggest ever in Indian history. Chandragupta began winning battles at age 20 after appointing the famous strategist Chanakya as his guru. He was more than capable of thwarting Alexander’s assault on India. When Chanakya first saw Chandragupta as a child in Taxila, he was captivated by his potential and decided to provide for Chandragupta’s education.

Dynasty: Mauryan Dynasty Period of rule: 324-297 BC

Who is powerful than Alexander the Great?

Philip II of Macedonia: Greater than Alexander In recent years, Philip II of Macedonia has been the subject of renewed interest by modern scholars; first with Ian Worthington’s book Philip of Macedonia from 2008 and now with the present work of Richard Gabriel from 2010.

The new focus on Philip II is a much needed supplement to the vast number of mainly bibliographic works on Alexander the Great, published prior to or in the years just after Oliver Stone’s film Alexander from 2004, in which the reign of Philip is often treated as the introduction, before attention is directed towards Alexander’s colourful life and his no doubt remarkable achievements in conquering Asia.

As a response to the intensive focus on Alexander, the reign of Philip II is thoroughly investigated and his importance as the king who ensured Macedonia its military and political position is strongly emphasised to the point where Philip II’s achievements are said to have been greater than those of Alexander (243).

Drawing on his knowledge of military history in general, Gabriel offers a passionate, well-written and helpful analysis of Philip’s military organisation, strategies and tactical dispositions, providing a valuable account of both the military development in Macedonia from Philip’s accession to Alexander’s invasion of Asia and of the process by which Philip changed Macedonia from a small and insignificant kingdom to a strong political and militarily dominant state, ready to challenge the Persian Empire.

The book is divided into nine chapters following Philip’s life from his adolescent years to his death in 334. Chapter one opens with a description of Philip’s childhood and of the court environment in which he grew up, followed by characterisation of Philip’s personality and how the years in Thebes inspired the political and military reorganisation of Macedonia.

  • Gabriel treats the question of Greekness and the dilemma of how the Macedonian Kings wished to be seen as Greek and how the Greeks in the fourth century saw Macedonians as culturally inferior.
  • In chapter 2 Gabriel describes Macedonia’s political, geographical and cultural disposition towards its enemies and argues that Macedonians during Philip’s reign developed a sense of national identity as members of a territorial state (p.38).

Chapter 3 addresses Macedonia’s military capacity and how Philip organised the different parts of the army: the phalanx, and how the cavalry was reorganised from a minor combat wing to become a decisive part of the army, to improve Macedonia’s fighting ability and tactical manoeuvrability.

  1. Gabriel hereafter treats the question of training, manpower and recruitment opportunities within Macedonian society, describing how the Macedonian fighting power expanded from a field army of about 10,000 and 600 cavalry in 358 to 24,000 infantry and 3,300 at Alexander’s accession.
  2. The chapter concludes with a treatment of Macedonian siegecraft and some interesting thoughts on the Macedonian intelligence service.

The unification of Macedonia is addressed in chapter 4, which also features the Illyrian War, in which Philip freed Macedonia from the Illyrian threat, and the siege of Amphipolis. Chapter 5 is dedicated to the beginning of the Sacred War and the takeover of Thessaly, where Philip won control of the Amphictyonic council and by that gained an improved political and military position in Greece.

  • Chapter 6 focuses on how Philip extended Macedonia’s control in the border regions, and chapter 7 treats Philip’s diplomatic skills in the tense period prior to the war on Athens culminating in chapter 8, with a thorough treatment of the battle at Chaeronea.
  • Gabriel offers again a comprehensive treatment of the military activities, strategies and tactical manoeuvres without losing his way in details.

Philip’s death is treated in the ninth and final chapter. Here Gabriel argues that it was the Persian King who was behind Philip’s murder and rejects the idea that Alexander was behind his father’s death (240-42). The chapter ends with a comparison of Philip and Alexander, where Gabriel argues that Philip all in all was a better general (249-51), and concludes that Alexander’s success in Asia rested on Philip’s ability to reform Macedonia to become the powerful state it was (p.243-6).

  • One of the main objectives of the book was to study Philip in his own right and bring him out of the shadow of Alexander.
  • Gabriel’s comprehensive account of Philip’s political and military accomplishments makes it abundantly clear how dramatically Macedonia changed from Philip’s accession to his death some two decades later, and it is equally obvious that it was Philip’s ability as a king and general which enabled Alexander to carry out what was perhaps one of the most extraordinary military campaigns at least in ancient history.

But is it fruitful to discuss whether Philip’s accomplishments were greater than those of Alexander, and is it even possible to compare two kings who had different starting points and ruled under very different conditions? It is not obvious that anyone would argue for the opposite view: that Alexander could have carried out his invasion of Asia without Philip’s reforms and reorganisation of Macedonia.

  1. The strength of Gabriel’s book is therefore not so much in the comparison between Philip and Alexander which is implied in the title of the book.
  2. It is rather the detailed account of Philip and his skills as king, general, diplomat and warrior, where the author provides a comprehensive narrative of Philip and his time.

The book is well produced, with instructive maps, figures and battle plans, illustrating the battle movements, frontiers and timetables—all very helpful to specialists, students and readers with a more general interests in Philip, Macedonia or military history per se,

You might be interested:  How To Recharge Kerala Vision Broadband?

Did Alexander the Great died in Egypt?

Alexander The Great and Egypt – He arrived in Egypt in 332 BC. After defeating the Persian emperor Darius for control of Syria and the Levant, Alexander marched to Egypt. At the time, Egypt was a satrapy in the Persian Empire, held loosely under Persian control since the decline of the Ancient Egyptian Empire at the end of the 7th century BC.

Alexander and his army of Greeks were regarded as liberators and to cement the Oracle of Amun at Siwa Oasis pronounced him the new ‘master of the universe’ and a descendent of the Egyptian god Amun. Alexander did not stay in Egypt long. By 331 BC he was on his way west to complete his conquest of the Persian Empire, but the impact of his conquest in Egypt was significant.

Alexander respected Egyptian culture and religion, but he installed a Greek government to control his administration of Egypt. Greek influence in Egypt was reinforced by the settlement of Greek veterans throughout Egypt, where they became a privileged aristocracy that gradually assimilated with the Egyptians.

  1. Alexander also founded a new Greek capital, Alexandria, located on the Mediterranean at the mouth of the Nile.
  2. Although Alexander would never return to Egypt, dying in Babylon in 323 BC, the Greek rule that he established proved more enduring.
  3. In the crisis after Alexander’s death, Ptolomy, one of his generals, claimed Egypt as his kingdom and established hereditary rule.

The Ptolomaic Dynasty would last until the Romans conquered Egypt in 32 BC. Alexandria emerged as a great city in the Mediterranean and a center of Hellenism, spreading Greek learning and culture. It was the site of the legendary Ancient Library of Alexandria and the Pharos Lighthouse, which was built on the site where Qaitbey Citadel stands today.

Did Alexander the Great die of West Nile virus?

Journal List Emerg Infect Dis v.10(7); 2004 Jul PMC3323347

As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more about our disclaimer. Emerg Infect Dis.2004 Jul; 10(7): 1328–1333.

  • To the Editor: Marr and Calisher suggest the cause of Alexander the Great’s death in Babylon in 323 B.C.
  • Was West Nile encephalitis ( 1 ).
  • They were intrigued by the fact that as Alexander entered Babylon, ravens fell dead from the sky.
  • The authors postulated the ravens might have had West Nile encephalitis, and because of the endemicity of mosquitoes in ancient Babylon, Alexander could have died of West Nile encephalitis.

The authors are to be complimented on coming up with a novel explanation for his death, but this explanation has several problems ( 2, 3 ). Determining the exact cause of Alexander’s death is impossible. Classical scholars are hampered by difficulties with translations from ancient Greek texts as well as differences in terms used by Plutarch in his description of Alexander’s demise.

  1. We are left with a description that is incomplete, but nevertheless contains cardinal features of his terminal illness ( 4 – 6 ).
  2. In infectious disease practice, a syndromic diagnosis is the basis of the clinical approach.
  3. Astute infectious disease clinicians must discern between consistent and characteristic features in syndromic diagnosis.

In addition to characteristic clinical features, syndromic diagnosis also depends on time relationships of clinical features. That splenomegaly is a feature of Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis is important, but equally as important is the late rather than early appearance of splenomegaly in the illness.

  1. A laundry list of features associated with various infectious diseases tells only part of the story and is diagnostically unhelpful unless placed in the proper time sequence.
  2. In the authors’ table, the clinical symptoms associated with Alexander’s final days are listed ( 1 ).
  3. In my review of translations of ancient sources, chills are never mentioned as accompanying Alexander’s slowly rising fever.

After a steadily increasing fever, Alexander first became weak, then lethargic, and finally died after a 2-week febrile illness. These features and time course are inconsistent with various explanations that have been given for Alexander’s death, i.e., influenza, poliomyelitis, alcoholic liver disease, malaria, schistosomiasis, leptospirosis, and poisoning ( 6 – 8 ).

The death of Alexander was certainly caused by an infectious disease and not poisoning or alcoholic liver disease. Although Alexander had an appetite for alcohol, his terminal illness is inconsistent with liver failure attributable to alcoholic cirrhosis or delirium tremens. Poisoning, which has been postulated by some, is not a reasonable diagnostic possibility either, since toxins or poisons are not accompanied by fever.

Therefore, we are left with an infectious disease that was endemic in ancient Babylon and was fatal after approximately 2 weeks. The infectious disease that resulted in Alexander’s demise was characterized by a slow but relentless increase in temperature during 2 weeks, unaccompanied by chills or drenching sweats.

  1. While remaining mentally alert, he drifted into an apathetic state, according to Alexander’s Royal Diaries.
  2. Details of his death do not provide additional details other than he was febrile, weak, and gradually became lethargic, lapsed into coma, and died.
  3. Are the features of his illness and temporal sequence of events characteristic of West Nile encephalitis ( 9 )? West Nile encephalitis is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that may have been endemic in ancient Babylon.

Ravens could have had West Nile encephalitis, and if West Nile encephalitis was present at the time, certainly it was transmitted to animals as well as humans. No one would argue with the possibility of West Nile encephalitis in the ancient Middle East; however, proving that West Nile encephalitis explains Alexander’s death is more difficult.

West Nile encephalitis begins acutely, with initial signs and symptoms of mental confusion and muscle weakness. Fevers are not usually the most conspicuous feature of West Nile encephalitis, and in most cases the fever does not usually increase or last more than a 2-week period. Other forms of viral encephalitis, including West Nile encephalitis, all begin with an abrupt change in mental status, e.g., encephalitis, at the outset of the illness.

The patient’s mental status may change over time, but encephalitic symptoms are present initially. This symptom is a characteristic feature of viral encephalitis, whether it is due to West Nile encephalitis or western equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, St.

  • Louis encephalitis, or Japanese encephalitis.
  • Even non–arthropod-borne causes of viral encephalitis, e.g., herpes simplex virus I encephalitis, occurs with encephalitis as an initial, not terminal feature.
  • Alexander’s final illness is more characteristic of typhoid fever than West Nile encephalitis.
  • On Alexander’s return to Babylon, he was confronted by many portents and omens and correctly assumed that they were a forewarning of his death.

Not only were ravens falling from the sky, but the birds that were sacrificed to foretell the future were devoid of a liver lobe, which was thought by the ancients to be an ominous sign. A docile animal in the royal menagerie, in a violent outburst, kicked the royal lion to death.

  • A mysterious person entered the royal chamber and sat on Alexander’s throne bypassing the household guards.
  • He claimed that he was divinely sent.
  • West Nile encephalitis could explain these unusual phenomena.
  • However, the time course and characteristic clinical features of West Nile encephalitis are inconsistent with the cause of Alexander the Great’s death ( 10 ).

On the basis of characteristic features and time course of the illness, typhoid fever is the most likely explanation for Alexander the Great’s death. The ravens in this case were the red herrings.

Where is Macedonia located today?

Official name: Republic of North Macedonia Location : North Macedonia is situated in Southeastern Europe, bordering Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, Serbia and Kosovo to the north, and Albania to the west. Area : 25,713 sq. km. Population : 2,084,367 (census from 2017) Capital : Skopje, about 600,000 inhabitants Ethnic composition: 64.17% Macedonians, 25.17% Albanians, 3.85% Turks, 2.66% Roma, 1.78% Serbs, 3.0% others and unspecified State government: North Macedonia is a Parliamentary Republic President : Gjorge Ivanov Official Language : Macedonian (Southern Slavic language) Religions : Orthodox Christians 64, 78%; Muslim 33,33% Time difference : Winter time: UTS +1 hours (October through March) Summer time: UTS +1 hours (April through September) Weather : Summer temperatures: average 26º to 35ºC (40 ºC is not uncommon) Winter temperatures: average -5º to 5ºC Country dialing code: +389 Measure units: degree Celsius (ºC), meter (m.), gram (gr.), liter (l.)

Where did Alexander the Great destroy?

In the year 330 BCE Alexander the Great (l.356-323 BCE) conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire following his victory over the Persian Emperor Darius III (r.336-330 BCE) at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. After Darius III’s defeat, Alexander marched to the Persian capital city of Persepolis and, after looting its treasures, burned the great palace and surrounding city to the ground, destroying hundreds of years’ worth of religious writings and art along with the magnificent palaces and audience halls which had made Persepolis the jewel of the empire, Ruins of Persepolis nomenklatura (CC BY-SA)