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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the classical school of thought in criminology. For the classical school of economic thought, see Classical economics, For other uses, see Classical (disambiguation), In criminology, the classical school usually refers to the 18th-century work during the Enlightenment by the utilitarian and social-contract philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria,
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Who are the thinker of classical school of management?

One of the first schools of management thought, the classical management theory, developed during the Industrial Revolution when new problems related to the factory system began to appear. Managers were unsure of how to train employees (many of them non‐English speaking immigrants) or deal with increased labor dissatisfaction, so they began to test solutions.

As a result, the classical management theory developed from efforts to find the “one best way” to perform and manage tasks. This school of thought is made up of two branches: classical scientific and classical administrative, described in the following sections. The classical scientific branch arose because of the need to increase productivity and efficiency.

The emphasis was on trying to find the best way to get the most work done by examining how the work process was actually accomplished and by scrutinizing the skills of the workforce. The classical scientific school owes its roots to several major contributors, including Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt, and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.

• Frederick Taylor is often called the “father of scientific management.” Taylor believed that organizations should study tasks and develop precise procedures.
• As an example, in 1898, Taylor calculated how much iron from rail cars Bethlehem Steel plant workers could be unloading if they were using the correct movements, tools, and steps.

The result was an amazing 47.5 tons per day instead of the mere 12.5 tons each worker had been averaging. In addition, by redesigning the shovels the workers used, Taylor was able to increase the length of work time and therefore decrease the number of people shoveling from 500 to 140.

Lastly, he developed an incentive system that paid workers more money for meeting the new standard. Productivity at Bethlehem Steel shot up overnight. As a result, many theorists followed Taylor’s philosophy when developing their own principles of management. Henry Gantt, an associate of Taylor’s, developed the Gantt chart, a bar graph that measures planned and completed work along each stage of production.

Based on time instead of quantity, volume, or weight, this visual display chart has been a widely used planning and control tool since its development in 1910. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, a husband‐and‐wife team, studied job motions. In Frank’s early career as an apprentice bricklayer, he was interested in standardization and method study.

He watched bricklayers and saw that some workers were slow and inefficient, while others were very productive. He discovered that each bricklayer used a different set of motions to lay bricks. From his observations, Frank isolated the basic movements necessary to do the job and eliminated unnecessary motions.

Workers using these movements raised their output from 1,000 to 2,700 bricks per day. This was the first motion study designed to isolate the best possible method of performing a given job. Later, Frank and his wife Lillian studied job motions using a motion‐picture camera and a split‐second clock.

Developing new standard methods for doing each job

Selecting, training, and developing workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves

Developing a spirit of cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work is carried out in accordance with devised procedures

Dividing work between workers and management in almost equal shares, with each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted

Whereas scientific management focused on the productivity of individuals, the classical administrative approach concentrates on the total organization. The emphasis is on the development of managerial principles rather than work methods. Contributors to this school of thought include Max Weber, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester I.

1. Barnard. These theorists studied the flow of information within an organization and emphasized the importance of understanding how an organization operated.
2. In the late 1800s, Max Weber disliked that many European organizations were managed on a “personal” family‐like basis and that employees were loyal to individual supervisors rather than to the organization.

He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally and that a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were followed, was important. In other words, he didn’t think that authority should be based on a person’s personality. He thought authority should be something that was part of a person’s job and passed from individual to individual as one person left and another took over.

A well‐defined hierarchy. All positions within a bureaucracy are structured in a way that permits the higher positions to supervise and control the lower positions. This clear chain of command facilitates control and order throughout the organization.

Division of labor and specialization. All responsibilities in an organization are specialized so that each employee has the necessary expertise to do a particular task.

Rules and regulations. Standard operating procedures govern all organizational activities to provide certainty and facilitate coordination.

Impersonal relationships between managers and employees. Managers should maintain an impersonal relationship with employees so that favoritism and personal prejudice do not influence decisions.

Competence. Competence, not “who you know,” should be the basis for all decisions made in hiring, job assignments, and promotions in order to foster ability and merit as the primary characteristics of a bureaucratic organization.

Records. A bureaucracy needs to maintain complete files regarding all its activities.

Henri Fayol, a French mining engineer, developed 14 principles of management based on his management experiences. These principles provide modern‐day managers with general guidelines on how a supervisor should organize her department and manage her staff. Although later research has created controversy over many of the following principles, they are still widely used in management theories.

Division of work: Division of work and specialization produces more and better work with the same effort.

Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. A manager has official authority because of her position, as well as personal authority based on individual personality, intelligence, and experience. Authority creates responsibility.

Discipline: Obedience and respect within an organization are absolutely essential. Good discipline requires managers to apply sanctions whenever violations become apparent.

Unity of command: An employee should receive orders from only one superior.

Unity of direction: Organizational activities must have one central authority and one plan of action.

Subordination of individual interest to general interest: The interests of one employee or group of employees are subordinate to the interests and goals of the organization.

Remuneration of personnel: Salaries — the price of services rendered by employees — should be fair and provide satisfaction both to the employee and employer.

Centralization: The objective of centralization is the best utilization of personnel. The degree of centralization varies according to the dynamics of each organization.

Scalar chain: A chain of authority exists from the highest organizational authority to the lowest ranks.

Order: Organizational order for materials and personnel is essential. The right materials and the right employees are necessary for each organizational function and activity.

Equity: In organizations, equity is a combination of kindliness and justice. Both equity and equality of treatment should be considered when dealing with employees. Stability of tenure of personnel: To attain the maximum productivity of personnel, a stable work force is needed. Initiative: Thinking out a plan and ensuring its success is an extremely strong motivator. Zeal, energy, and initiative are desired at all levels of the organizational ladder.

Esprit de corps: Teamwork is fundamentally important to an organization. Work teams and extensive face‐to‐face verbal communication encourages teamwork.

Mary Parker Follett stressed the importance of an organization establishing common goals for its employees. However, she also began to think somewhat differently than the other theorists of her day, discarding command‐style hierarchical organizations where employees were treated like robots.

• She began to talk about such things as ethics, power, and leadership.
• She encouraged managers to allow employees to participate in decision making.
• She stressed the importance of people rather than techniques — a concept very much before her time.
• As a result, she was a pioneer and often not taken seriously by management scholars of her time.

But times change, and innovative ideas from the past suddenly take on new meanings. Much of what managers do today is based on the fundamentals that Follett established more than 80 years ago. Chester Barnard, who was president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, introduced the idea of the informal organization — cliques (exclusive groups of people) that naturally form within a company.

He felt that these informal organizations provided necessary and vital communication functions for the overall organization and that they could help the organization accomplish its goals. Barnard felt that it was particularly important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose where a willingness to cooperate is strongly encouraged.

He is credited with developing the acceptance theory of management, which emphasizes the willingness of employees to accept that managers have legitimate authority to act. Barnard felt that four factors affected the willingness of employees to accept authority:

The employees must understand the communication.

The employees accept the communication as being consistent with the organization’s purposes.

The employees feel that their actions will be consistent with the needs and desires of the other employees.

The employees feel that they are mentally and physically able to carry out the order.

Barnard’s sympathy for and understanding of employee needs positioned him as a bridge to the behavioral school of management, the next school of thought to emerge.
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What are the theories of the classical school of management thought?

The classical management theory believes that employees are strongly motivated by their physical needs and monetary incentives. Organizations that implement this management style often incorporate regular opportunities for employees to be rewarded for their productivity with incentives.
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Who are the 3 major proponents of classical management theory?

The Branches of Classical Management Theory – There were three main proponents of the classical management theory– Henri Fayol, Frederick W. Taylor, and Max Weber. Out of the work of these individuals, three primary branches of the theory can be identified: administrative management, scientific management, and bureaucratic management.
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Who were the founders of the classical school of thought?

Enlightenment philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Cesare de Beccaria are credited with the founding of the classical school of criminology.
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What did the classical school of management focus on?

Classical management is a centralized management style that focuses on the tasks of the employees. This type of management does not take into consideration the job satisfaction of employees or their social or emotional needs. It focuses solely on their economic and physical needs.
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What are the three major classical theories?

There are three main classical organizational theories: scientific management theory, bureaucracy theory, and administrative theory.
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Who are the major theorists of classical theory?

4 Classical Theorists of Modernity (Their Approach to Modernity) The four classical theorists of modernity are as follows: 1. Karl Marx: It is commodification 2. Max Weber: It is rationality 3. Emile Durkheim: It is differentiation 4. Georg Simmel: City and economy make modernity.

• The classical theorists are those who are foundational theorists – they are the pioneer thinkers.
• Among them are included Marx, Weber, Durkheim and Simmel.
• Though these thinkers have not taken the concept of modernity in a formal way, their works indicate that they are concerned with the processes of modernization.

In their own way, they have comprehended it. Here, we take up their approach to modernity.1. Karl Marx: It is commodification : Marx’s concern with modernity was in terms of production relations. It was the objective of the capitalist class to increase its production.

1. More production means more profit.
2. Capitalism, for him, was ultimately profiteering.
3. Marx, therefore, argued that for capitalism everything is a commodity.
4. Dance, drama, literature, religion, in fact, everything in society is a commodity.
5. It is manufactured and sold in the market.
6. Even, religion and rituals are also items of commodity.

Alienation, exploitation and oppression are all due to commodification. Quite like the economic items, the non-economic items are also things of commodification. Modernization, therefore, according to Marx, is nothing but a commodity, a thing to be bought and sold, and an item for trade and commerce.

In a word, modernity is commercialization.2. Max Weber: It is rationality : Weber is credited to have developed the thesis of Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. He argues that Kalvinism – a sect of Protestant religion – has certain ethics, which develop the spirit of capitalism. Religion, though a spiritual order, is run on the norms of rationality.

Weber scans a huge literature on domination, religion and other wider areas of life and comes to the conclusion that rationality is the pervading theme, which characterizes human actions. He has, therefore, defined modernity as rationality. For him, in one word, modernity is synonymous with rationality.3.

Emile Durkheim: It is differentiation : Durkheim had a very intimate encounter with industrialization and urbanization. He was scared of the impact of modernization. His studies of modern society brought out very interesting and exciting data. He was a functionalist. He very strongly believed in the cohesion of society.

For him, society is above everything else. It is par excellence. It is God. Despite all this, society is never static. It is evolutionary. Durkheim was a product of 19th century. Like any other sociologist, he was also an evolutionist of his times. He traced the origin of society.

In its evolutionary stage, the society had mechanical solidarity. Conscience collective, collective representations and repressive laws held the mechanical society together. In course of evolution, the mechanical society attains the stage of organic solidarity. In this society, there is differentiation – multiple of occupations, plural ethnicities and varying people.

This functional- organic structure of society is held together by social density and contractual relations. Durkheim defines modernity in the context of social solidarity. His thesis is: more there is differentiation, more there is modernity”. Modernity creates functional dependence.

• 4. Georg Simmel: City and economy make modernity :
• Frisby in his recent work (1992) observes that of the founding fathers “Simmel is the first sociologist of modernity”.
• Ritzer accounts for his modernist status as under:

Simmel is seen as investigating modernity primarily in two major interrelated sites: the city and the money economy. The city is where modernity is concentrated or intensified, whereas the money economy involves the diffusion of modernity, its extension.

• Thus, for Simmel, modernity consists of city life and the diffusion of money.
• Simmel has put his ideas about modernity in his book Philosophy of Money.
• Foggi elaborates the money criterion of modernity in these words: The first is that modernization brings with it a series of advantages to human beings, especially the fact that they are able to express various potentialities that are unexpressed, concealed and represented in pre-modern society.

Second, Simmel deals with the powerful effect of money on modern society. Finally, there is Simmel’s concentration on the adverse consequences of money for modernity, especially alienation. When we carefully analyze the definition of Simmel as interpreted by Foggi, the following points emerge: 1.

1. All the above four founding fathers who have defined modernity had opportunities to experience it in their life too.
2. Whatever they have identified as elements of modernity can be presented in the following capsule:
3. Marx: Modernity is commodification.
4. Weber: Modernity is rationality.

Durkheim: Differentiation, i.e., stratification. Simmel: City life and money economy. The concept of modernity has been defined by all the founding fathers of sociology. The definitions are diverse and varying. Despite diversity in their comprehension and perception, the fact remains that they have touched upon all the major formations or manifestations of modernity.

It can therefore be safely concluded that these classical theorists have done very well in doing sociology of modernity. By 1920 all four of above classical sociological theorists were dead. As we have now entered the 21st century, it is obvious that the world would be very different than it was in 1920.

While there is great disagreement over when the postmodern age began (assuming for the moment that it did), no one puts that data before 1920. The issue is whether the changes in the world since that time are modest and continuous with those associated with modernity, or are so dramatic and discontinuous that the contemporary world is better described by a new term – postmodern.

Our guess is that in most of the parts of world, modernity is still a continuing process. Habermas, the German modernist, argues that the project of modernity, which started after enlightenment, is still an incomplete project. And then, postmodernity is multi-dimensional. It is never uniform. There are parts of a society, which are postmodern and still parts, which are simultaneously modern.

We now turn to the definitions of modernity given by contemporary social theorists. : 4 Classical Theorists of Modernity (Their Approach to Modernity)
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What is classical school of thought?

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the classical school of thought in criminology. For the classical school of economic thought, see Classical economics, For other uses, see Classical (disambiguation), In criminology, the classical school usually refers to the 18th-century work during the Enlightenment by the utilitarian and social-contract philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria,
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Who are the fathers of classical management?

OER for a Post Graduate Programme in HRM The twentieth century witnessed tremendous management theory ferment and activity. Efforts were taking place for the development of a comprehensive management theory. Traditional or classical management school of theory is a result of such efforts.
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Who were the 2 key thinkers of the classical school?

COMP6044 Just another ECS Blogs weblog This week I have carried on my reading of Roger Hopkins Burke (2005). In my earlier blog I talked about the rational actor model, however central to this is the classical school of thought. Ideas of the classical school argued that people are ‘rational creatures’ who look for pleasure while at the same time trying to avoid pain.

Therefore, any punishment that is inflicted must significantly outweigh any pleasure that one might have achieved as a result of a criminal act, in order to deter people from committing crimes. The classical school can be thought of as having a significant impact on the influence on the modern day justice system because of the notions of ‘due process’ (Packer, 1968) and ‘just deserts’ (von Hirscg, 1976).

There were two key classical school theorists – Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. Cesare Beccaria (1738-94) Was the author of an influential book that had a huge impact on European and US legal thought. He disagreed with inconsistencies in the government and public affairs Beccaria suggested that criminals owed a ‘debt’ to society and that the punishment for criminals should be in proportion to the seriousness of the crime.

He recommended that capital punishments was no use and instead imprisonment should be extended, with the conditions of prisons to be improved. However, it is his theory of criminal behaviour that has provided the grounding for the rational actor model, using the concepts of free will and hedonism. Beccaria proposed that human behaviour is based on the pleasure-pain principle, so any punishment should reflect that.

Beccaria’s ideas have had a significant effect on the modern criminal justice system and the doctrine of ‘free will’ can be seen today in the majority of legal codes, with a major impact on popular ideas of justice. Jeremy Bentham He attributed criminal behaviour to their incorrect upbringing or socialisation instead of innate inclinations to offend.

1. Bentham considered criminals as ‘persons of unsound mind’ who have no self discipline to manage their passions.
2. His ideas are similar to that Beccaria suggesting that people are ‘rational creatures’ who try to avoid pain while looking for pleasure.
3. Likewise, similar to that before, punishment must outweigh any pleasure that is gained as result of committing a criminal act.

However the law must NOT decrease the ‘greatest happiness.’ Bentham also believed in ‘free will,’ with his work proposing that criminality might be ‘learned behaviour.’ The influence of the Classical School According to Hopkins – Burke (2005) the classical school is considered influential in legal doctrine that emphasises conscious intent or choice, (e.g.

• Only an individual found guilty by a court can be punished for the crime • Anyone that is found to be guilty of a crime must be punished • Punishment must not be more than the nature of the offence and culpability of the offender • Punishment must not be less than the nature of the offence and culpability of the criminal

All of these are founded on the notion first suggested by Beccaria and Bentham. There is importance on the idea s of free will, and rationality, proportionality and equality, with an added importance on criminal behaviour that looks at the crime and not the actual criminal, in relation to the pleasure-pain notion to make sure that justice is done by equal punishments for crimes of the same nature.

• According to Packer (1968) the criminal justice system is said to be founded on the balance between due process and crime control.
• Due process stresses that it is the role of the criminal justice to prove that the defendant is guilty beyond all reasonable doubt, however the state has a duty to prove the guilt of the accused (King, 1981).

This is based around the idea of innocent until proven guilty. This model requires the enforcement of rules that are concerned with powers that the police have and the use of evidence. This due process system recognises that some guilty people may get off scot free and remain unpunished.

But this is considered to be acceptable if it means that innocent people are not wrongly convicted and punished. On the other hand, a high rate of aquittal gives the impression that the criminal justice system is inadequate and not performing their jobs properly, and therefore failing to deter criminals.

Contrastingly, a crime control model places emphasis on achieving results with priorities on catching, convicting, and punishing the criminal. In this model there is what’s known as a ‘presumption of guilty’ (King,1981) and there are less controls to protect the offender.

1. It is seen as acceptable if some innocent individuals are found guilty.
2. In this model it is the interests of the victims, and society that are given the biggest priority rather than the accused.
3. Criminals are thought to be deterred due to the shift processing nature of the system, therefore if a person offends they are likely to be caught quickly and punished – therefore what’s the point?! The primary foundation of the crime control model is to ‘punish the guilty and deter criminals as a way of reducing crime and therefore creating a safer society,’ (Hopkins-Burke, 2005).

: COMP6044 Just another ECS Blogs weblog
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What is the main concept of classical theory?

a. Necessary and Sufficient Conditions – Consider an arbitrary concept, A necessary condition for being an F is a condition such that something must satisfy that condition in order for it to be an F. For instance, being male is necessary for being a bachelor, and being four-sided is necessary for being a square.

1. Such characteristics specified in necessary conditions are shared by, or had in common with, all things to which the concept in question applies.
2. A sufficient condition for being an F is a condition such that if something satisfies that condition, then it must be an F.
3. Being a bachelor is sufficient for being male, for instance, and being a square is sufficient for being a square.

A necessary and sufficient condition for being an F is a condition such that not only must a thing satisfy that condition in order to be an F, but it is also true that if a thing satisfies that condition, then it must be an F. For instance, being a four-sided regular, plane figure is both necessary and sufficient for being a square.

1. That is, a thing must be a four-sided regular plane figure in order for it to be a square, and if a thing is a four-sided regular plane figure, then it must be a square.
2. Finally, for a concept, necessary and jointly sufficient conditions for being an F is a set of necessary conditions such that satisfying all of them is sufficient for being an F.

The conditions of being four-sided and of being a regular figure are each necessary conditions for being a square, for instance, and the conjunction of them is a sufficient condition for being a square.
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Who are the classical sociological theorists?

Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber are indispensable for understanding the sociological enterprise. They are among the chief founders of the discipline and among the foremost theorists of modernity, and their work can stimulate readers to reflect on their own identities and worldviews.
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What are the principles of classical approach?

Contributions of Classical Approach : – The main features of classical theory are as under: (i) The classical theory concentrated on the study of formal organisations. It laid emphasis on division of labour, specialization, structure, scalar chain, functional processes and span of control.

• Ii) Management is the study of managerial experiences.
• If the experiences are studied and certain generalizations are derived therefrom, these will help the practising managers.
• Iii) The classical theorists emphasised organisation structure for coordination of various activities.
• They ignored the role of human element.

(iv) The relationship between workers and management is established through formal communications, defined tasks and accountability and formalised procedures and practices to minimise conflict between them. (v) The worker is essentially an ‘economic man’ who can be motivated basically by economic rewards.

• Money is considered the main motivator under this theory.
• Vi) The efficiency of the organisation can be increased by making each individual efficient.
• Vii) The integration of the organisation is achieved through the authority and control of the central mechanism.
• Thus, it is based on centralisation of authority.

(viii) There is no conflict between the individuals and the organisation. In case of any conflict, the interests of the organisation should prevail. (ix) The classical school is based on the study of past managerial experiences and cases of various organisations.
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What is the goal of classical school?

Classical education is a conscious return to the ancient goal of education: teaching children to think and learn for themselves by imparting to them the tools of learning. The goal is to promote the type of inquiry that ultimately allows students to discover for themselves that which is true and beautiful.
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What is the classical school of strategy?

The classical school of strategic thinking – The classical school of strategic thinking was come up with during the industrial revolution when factories in the industries faced management problems. There were vast labor dissatisfactions and the management was unsure on how to deal with the situation.

1. The other issue was how to train the employees to make them loyal members of the organizations.
2. The key objective of this school of thought was to determine the best way that could be used to undertake and manage tasks (CliffsNotes, 2010, 1).
3. The classical school of strategic thinking was broadly categorized into classical administrative school and the classical scientific school of thought.

The classical scientific school was developed to satisfy the need to improve efficiency and productivity within the factories. The main aim was to ensure that the most work is done and that the workforce has the most desired skills to do the work. This should be done through scrutinizing the skills possessed by the workforce and also paying more attention to the work process.

The main proponents of the scientific classical school are Lillian Gilbreth, Fredrick Taylor, Gantt and Frank whose contribution led to the development of the classical scientific school. The administrative school on the other hand concentrated on the total organization where emphasis is laid on the developing managerial principles in the organization.

The proponents of the administrative school based their study on the flow of information in an organization. Their main emphasis is to understand how the organization operates and how it can be improved to increase the performance of the organization.

One of the greatest proponents of this school, Max Weber, argued that the organization should not be managed personally because people will be loyal to their personal supervisors instead of the organization itself. Weber believes in a bureaucratic structure of the organization where there are rules to be followed by the members of the organization.

This way, he believed, would detach the organization from the personalized management. He condemned the European organizations for personalizing their management which he described as family-like system of management. The other proponents of the administrative school include Henri Fayol, Mary P.F., and Chester B.
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Who is the management thinker?

The term ” Management Thinker ” refers to people who make a significant contribution to the development of management teaching, practice and institution by developing new methods, concepts, models and theories. The term ” management theorist” and the term ” management thought leader” are used as synonyms. Closely related is the term ” Business Thinker “.
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Who were the first management thinkers?

Taylor was one of the first true pioneers of management through his scientific examination of the way work was done. His led directly to the achievements of other management gurus like Max Weber and Henry Ford.
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Who is the father of management thinking?

• Peter Drucker revolutionized the approach to business management by suggesting that successful leaders should put people and ethics first rather than focusing entirely on profits and rigid rules and work structures.
• The pillars of Drucker’s theory of management are decentralization, prioritization of knowledge work, management by objectives, and SMART goals.
• By implementing Drucker’s approach, managers can empower their employees, improve the company’s culture, encourage innovation, increase efficiency, create a nurturing and ethical work environment, and ultimately boost the business’s success.
• This article is for small business owners and managers who are looking to improve their management techniques with an ethical, people-centered approach.

Peter Drucker is an influential Austrian-American author, mentor and consultant who is considered the father of modern business management. His innovative thinking has revolutionized today’s theory of business and transformed it into an actionable and ethical discipline used by progressive business leaders worldwide.

At the core of his approach to management lies the idea that, to succeed, businesses need to put the development and well-being of their people (rather than just the bottom line) first. By implementing Drucker’s people-centered management theory, business owners and managers can build a sustainable and nourishing work environment that benefits the company’s long-term development, goals and growth.

This article will give you the practical tools to implement his management theory.
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